Biblical Ideology of Europe, 1660-1690

Sources of American Liberty and Law

On this day 250 years ago, April 19, 1775, the first shots were fired at Lexington, Massachusetts which led to American independence. On that very day the colony of Connecticut was praying and fasting due to the Proclamation of a Day of Fasting and Prayer by its Governor Jonathan Trumbull. He urged them to pray on that day that "God would graciously pour out His Holy Spirit on us to bring us to a thorough repentance and effectual reformation that our iniquities may not be our ruin; that He would restore, preserve and secure the liberties of this and all the other British American colonies, and make the land a mountain of Holiness, and habitation of righteousness forever.” The pastor of the church in Lexington, Rev. Jonas Clark, saw the men in his congregation fight that day, and some of them died. But he saw God’s providence in that moment and said: “From this day will be dated the liberty of the world." Soon this blog will look at more of these events, but for now we are examining some of the historical influences on the political and legal reasoning back in Europe that led to American independence.

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In the last blog, we reviewed important ideas that were expressed in the 1640s and 1650s in Europe, especially in the English Civil War and Commonwealth period. These were temporarily reversed or ignored for a while after the restoration of Monarchy in England in 1660. This reversal also influenced the colonies in America. New England’s original charter was revoked in 1684, the former royalist colonies such as Virginia realigned with England’s government. Beneath the surface, long-term tensions grew between local and imperial authority.

Ideologically, the brief abolition of the monarchy and earlier execution of Charles I demonstrated that a king could be held accountable by the people. The doctrine of the divine right of kings was no more, and a new awareness emerged of the ability of a parliament to successfully manage government, not just as an advisory body but as a guardian of liberties. So, although the next 3 decades seemed to reverse some of the Commonwealth ideals, the ideas gradually grew over the next 3 decades. Some key documents and writings reveal this below.

Key European documents between 1661-1690:

Declaration of Breda (1660, King Charles II)

Law of Nature and Nations (1672, Puffendorf)

Duty of Man and Citizen According to Natural Law (1673, Puffendorf)

Discourses Concerning Government (1683, Sidney – although not published until 1698)

Institutes of Elenctic Theology (1685, Turretin)

English Bill of Rights (1689)

English Act of Toleration (1689)

Two Treatises of Government (1689, Locke)

One of the things from the previous period that overtly remained in favor was more religious toleration both in England and in the colonies. In this light, a new colony began in America known as Pennsylvania, founded by Quaker William Penn, that was the foremost model of religious toleration. Another notable colony emerged under English control through the seizure of New Amsterdam from the Dutch. It was renamed as New York.

The writings [discussed below] of Puffendorf, Sidney and Locke were major developments in governmental thinking that eventually found legal expression in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and 1689 and its Bill of Rights and Act of Toleration. England’s Glorious Revolution solidified English models of governance and religion. Parliament invited William and Mary to replace James II and take the throne under the condition that monarchical power be limited—limits enshrined in the Bill of Rights (1689). Laws, taxes and the army henceforth required approval by parliament (i.e. parliamentary supremacy). The rule of law was established with this new constitutional monarchy.

The legal precedent of the consent of the governed became fundamental to the thinking of American colonists as well. Colonists in Boston overthrew the royalist governor Andros in April 1689 and re-established colonial government (New York and Maryland colonies made similar moves). The only thing that was not restored in New England was the religious system – now toleration was required of other Protestant denominations and voting rights for non-church members.

Let us examine some key excerpts from Pufendorf, Sidney and Locke showing Christian Biblical reasoning:

Pufendorf

Samuel von Pufendorf’s The Law of Nature and Nations (De Jure Naturae et Gentium, 1672) was deeply influenced by the Bible, particularly in its moral and legal philosophy.

A. The Concept of Natural Law as Rooted in Divine Order

Pufendorf, like Hugo Grotius before him, believed that natural law was established by God and could be discerned by human reason. He saw moral law as universally binding on both rulers and citizens (e.g., Romans 2:14-15, which speaks of the law being written on the hearts of people). His emphasis on the dignity of individuals and human equality was influenced by Genesis 1:27—“God created mankind in his own image.”

B. The Biblical Foundations of Sovereignty and Governance

Pufendorf argued that civil government was necessary due to human sinfulness, echoing the biblical understanding of fallen human nature in Genesis 3. He emphasized that rulers were bound by moral law, much like the Old Testament concept of kings being accountable to divine justice (e.g., Deuteronomy 17:18-20, where Israelite kings were instructed to govern according to God's law). He stressed the need for rulers to seek the common good rather than absolute power, paralleling Proverbs 29:2: “When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice; but when the wicked rule, the people groan.”

C. Religious Toleration and the Role of Conscience

Pufendorf promoted religious toleration, arguing that government should not coerce individual conscience in matters of faith—an idea rooted in New Testament teachings on personal faith (e.g., Romans 14:5, “Each one should be fully convinced in his own mind”). He built upon the biblical idea that human authority was limited and that religious obligations were ultimately owed to God rather than the state (Matthew 22:21: “Render unto Caesar what is Caesar’s, and unto God what is God’s”).

A year after Pufendor’s work on the Law of Nature and Nations, he wrote On the Duty of Man and Citizen According to Natural Law (1673). It built on the natural law thinking above but also emphasized:

1. Justice and the Social Order:

   Pufendorf emphasized the need for individuals and rulers to act justly to maintain societal harmony. Biblical Example: Proverbs 21:3 states that “to do righteousness and justice is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice.” This aligns with Pufendorf’s idea that justice is fundamental to a well-ordered society.

2. Human Dignity and Equality:

   Pufendorf held that all people are equal under natural law and that rulers derive their authority not from divine right but from a social contract. Biblical Example: Genesis 1:27 states that all humans are created in the image of God, which reinforces the idea of intrinsic human dignity and equality.

3. The Role of Government:

   He advocated for a government that protects natural rights and the common good rather than serving the selfish interests of rulers. Biblical Example: In 1 Samuel 8, when Israel demands a king, God warns them about the dangers of tyranny. This reflects Pufendorf’s belief that governments should be held accountable to the people.

Sidney

Algernon Sidney’s Discourses Concerning Government (1683, although not published for another 15 years) was a highly influential work that opposed absolute monarchy and advocated for popular sovereignty, republicanism, and the right of resistance against tyranny. The Bible played a significant role in shaping Sidney’s arguments, as he frequently used biblical examples to support his case for limited government and the legitimacy of rebellion against unjust rulers. Key ideas are as follows:

[Note: For paid subscribers today’’s extra section later below is an excerpt from Sidney’s discourses.]

1. Biblical Justification for Resistance to Tyranny

   Sidney rejected the idea of the divine right of kings, which claimed that monarchs ruled by God’s direct appointment and were accountable only to Him. He cited biblical passages (e.g., Exodus and Judges) where God’s people resisted tyrannical rulers, such as Moses leading Israel out of Egypt and the Israelites rejecting oppressive kings. He argued that God never endorsed absolute monarchy but rather supported governance based on justice and the consent of the governed.

2. The Hebrew Republic as a Model

   Sidney used the Old Testament to argue that the biblical government of Israel was not a monarchy but rather a system where power was distributed among judges and elders, ensuring accountability. He referenced the period before Israel demanded a king (1 Samuel 8), where governance was based on law and collective leadership, rather than hereditary rule. This was used to argue that a government accountable to the people was more aligned with divine law than absolute monarchy.

3. Equality and the Biblical Basis for Liberty

   Sidney emphasized that all men were created equal under God, challenging the notion that some individuals were divinely ordained to rule over others. He invoked biblical principles to argue that rulers derived their authority from the people, not from birthright or arbitrary power.

Locke

John Locke's Two Treatises of Government (1689) was profoundly shaped by biblical principles, particularly in his arguments for natural rights, government by consent, and the right of rebellion against tyranny. Locke, though influenced by Enlightenment rationalism, frequently referenced Scripture to support his political philosophy (but modern editions of his works often leave the Bible verses out). His key ideas were:

1. Natural Rights and Human Equality (Genesis 1:26-28)

   Locke argued that all humans are born with natural rights to life, liberty, and property. He derived this idea in part from Genesis 1:26-28, where God grants dominion over the earth to mankind, implying a natural order of freedom and stewardship. Locke emphasized that since all people are created in God's image, no one has a divine right to rule over others without their consent.

2. Government by Consent (Judges 8:22-23)

   Locke rejected the divine right of kings and instead proposed that governments derive authority from the consent of the governed. In Judges 8:22-23, Gideon refuses kingship, declaring that only God should rule over Israel, reinforcing the idea that political power is not inherently given to a monarch but must be granted by the people.

3. The Right to Rebellion Against Tyranny (Exodus 1, Acts 5:29)

   Locke argued that when governments violate natural rights, citizens have a right to overthrow them. He cited biblical examples, such as: Exodus 1: The Hebrew midwives defying Pharaoh’s orders to kill male Israelite children; and Acts 5:29: The apostles proclaiming, “We must obey God rather than men,” suggesting that divine law overrides unjust human law. These examples reinforced his belief that resistance against tyranny is justified when rulers act against God’s law and the people's well-being.

4. Property Rights and Labor (Genesis 2:15, Exodus 20:15)

   Locke’s famous assertion that property originates from labor (“mixing one’s labor” with the land) aligns with Genesis 2:15, where God commands Adam to cultivate the Garden of Eden. Exodus 20:15 (“You shall not steal”) undergirds Locke’s idea that individuals have a divine right to their property, which the government must protect.

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The rich documentation and writings of Europe, especially England, reveals how universal the Christian worldview was in those nations. While grappling with development and application of public policy, they felt a necessity to approach it from the standpoint of Scripture first. They first asked: What did God already reveal about politics and patters of government?

Modern historians try to frame or describe some of these writers such as John Locke as Enlightenment rationalists or Deists, and modern editions of their writings often have the Bible verses (that people like Locke cited) edited out. This was true also for America’s Founders. They reasoned as Christians toward society and politics, but their Scriptural citations or writings are often removed.

An old book in my own personal library is John Locke's "A Commonplace Book to the Holy Bible, or the Scripture's Sufficiency Practically Demonstrated." [See pic at beginning of this blog.] It shows how much effort he put into organizing and analyzing the principles of Scripture for every area of life. This careful study of the Bible for all of life is what gave America the ideological foundations for indendence and liberty.

[Note: For paid subscribers today’’s extra section below is an excerpt from Sidney’s discourses.]

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